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Infections causing human cancer / Harald zur Hausen ; with a contribution of James G. Fox, Timothy C. Wang and Julie Parsonnet. — Weinheim : Wiley - Blackwell, c2011. – (64.83/Z96) |
Contents
Contents
1 Historical Review 1
1.1 The Early Period (1898-1911) 1
1.2 Frustration and Successes 0912-1950)
1.3 The Period from 1950 to 1965 3
1.4 A First Human Tumorvirus? 5
1.5 The Difficult 1970s 6
1.6 The Re-Emergence of a Concept 7
References 10
2 The Quest for Causality 17
2.1 Infectious Agents as Direct Carcinogens 20
2.2 Infectious Agents as Indirect Carcinogens 22
2.2.1 Induction of Chromosomal Aberrations 23
References 25
3 Tumors Linked to Infections: Some General Aspects 27
3.1 Tumor Types Linked to Infections 27
3.2 Global Contributions of Infections to Human Cancers 28
3.3 Host Interactions with Potentially Carcinogenic Infections: The CIF Concept
3.3.1 The CIF-I Cascade 32
3.3.2 The CIF-II Cascade 34
3.3.3 The CIF-III Cascade 35
References 38
4 Herpesviruses and Oncogenesis 41
References 43
4.1 Alphaherpesvirinae 44
4.1.1 Herpes Simplex Viruses Types 1 and 2 44
4.1.2 Varicella-Zoster Virus 47
References 47
4.2 Betaherpesvirinae 51
4.2.1 Human Cytomegalovirus 51
4.2.2 Human Herpesvirus Type 6 54
References 60
4.3 Gammaherpesvirinae (Lymphocryptoviruses) 65
4.3.1 Epstein-Barr Virus 65
4.3.1.1 Characterization of the Virus， and its Biological Properties 66
4.3.1.2 EBV Gene Products in Latent Infection 67
4.3.1.3 Transforming Properties of EBV and Tumor Induction in Animals 72
4.3.1.4 Various Stages of Epstein-Barr Viral Latency 74
4.3.1.5 EBVin Infectious Mononucleosis 76
4.3.1.6 EBVin X-Chromosome-Linked Lymphoproliferative Disease 77
4.3.1.7 EBVin Immunoblastic Lymphoma 77
4.3.1.8 EBV in Burkitt's Lymphoma 78
4.3.1.9 EBV in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma 83
4.3.1.10 EBVin Hodgkin's Disease 88
4.3.1.11 EBVin Gastric and Esophageal Carcinomas 92
4.3.1.12 EBVin NK/T-Cell Lymphomas 94
4.3.1.13 EBV and Other Human Cancers 95
References 95
4.4 Rhadinoviruses 118
4.4.1 Human Herpesvirus Type 8 (HHV-8， Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus)
4.4.1.1 Historical Background 118
4.4.1.2 Epidemiology and Mode of Transmission 119
4.4.1.3 Pathogenesis: Other Diseases Associated with HHV-8 Infections 121
4.4.1.4 Viral Genes Expressed in Viral Latency 122
4.4.1.5 Cellular Genes Regulating Viral Latency 126
4.4.1.6 Interaction Between HIV and HHV-8 127
4.4.1.7 Viral Homologues to Host Cell Genes and Evasion from the Host's Immune Mechanisms 128
4.4.1.8 HHV-8-Related Herpesviruses in Nonhuman Primates 131
4.4.2 Marek's Disease of Chickens 132
References 132
5 Papillomavirus Infections: A Major Cause of Human Cancers 145
5.1 Introduction 145
5.1.1 Structure of the Viral Particle， Transcriptional Regulation， and Taxonomy
5.1.2 Transmission and Natural History of Papillomavirus Infections 152
5.1.3 Functions of Viral Proteins 153
5.1.3.1 E6 153
5.1.3.2 E6* 157
5.1.3.3 E7 157
5.1.3.4 E5 162
5.1.3.5 E1 163
5.1.3.6 E2 164
5.1.3.7 E4 165
5.2 The Concept of Cellular Interfering Cascades: Immunological， Intracellular and Paracrine Host Factors Influencing Viral Oncogene Expression or Function 166
5.2.1 Immunological Control 167
5.2.2 CIF-I: Recognition System and its Disturbance 168
5.2.3 CIF-II: Intracellular Control of Viral Oncoprotein Functions 169
5.2.4 CIF-III: Paracrine Control 171
5.3 Cancers Linked to HPV Infections 174
5.3.1 Cancer of the Cervix 174
5.3.2 Penile Cancer 177
5.3.3 Vulvar Cancer 177
5.3.4 Vaginal Cancer 178
5.3.5 Perianal and Anal Cancer 178
5.3.6 Cancer of the Head and Neck 179
5.3.7 Other Cancers 181
5.3.7.1 Breast Cancer 181
5.3.7.2 Prostate Cancer 181
5.3.7.3 Lung Cancer 181
5.3.7.4 Colon and Rectum Cancers 182
5.3.7.5 Ovarian Cancer 182
5.3.7.6 Bladder Cancer 182
5.3.7.7 Nasal， Sinonasal and Conjunctival Cancers 183
5.3.7.8 Cancer of the Larynx 183
5.3.7.9 Cancer of the Esophagus 184
5.3.8 Cutaneous Papillomavirus Infections and Skin Cancer 185
5.4 The Role of Cofactors 188
5.4.1 Non-Infectious Cofactors 188
5.4.1.1 Smoking 188
5.4.1.2 Hormones and Hormonal Contraceptive Use 189
5.4.1.3 Parity 190
5.4.1.4 Nutrients 190
5.4.2 Infectious Cofactors 191
5.4.2.1 Herpes viruses 191
5.4.2.2 Chlamydia trachomatis 192
5.4.2.3 Human Immunodeficiency Virus 193
5.4.2.4 Other Infections 193
5.5 Preventive Vaccination 194
5.6 Therapeutic Vaccination 195
5.7 Therapy 197
References 198
6 Hepadnaviruses 244
6.1 Hepatitis B 244
6.1.1 Historical Aspects 244
6.1.2 Epidemiology and Clinical Symptoms 245
6.1.3 Taxonomy and Viral Genome Structure 248
6.1.4 Viral Gene Products and Functions 250
6.1.4.1 Core Antigen 250
6.1.4.2 Polymerase 250
6.1.4.3 HB X Antigen 251
6.1.5 Pathogenesis and Immune Interactions 253
6.1.6 Role in Hepatocellular Carcinoma 254
6.1.6.1 HBxTransgenic Mice and HCCs 254
6.1.6.2 HBS Transgenic Mice and HCCs 255
6.1.7 Interaction of Hepatitis B Infection with Chemical Carcinogens (Aflatoxins and Alcohol) 257
6.1.7.1 Alcohol 257
6.1.7.2 Aflatoxin 257
6.1.8 Mechanism ofHBV-Mediated Oncogenesis 258
6.1.9 Prevention and Control of HBV-Mediated Infections 259
6.1.9.1 Prevention 259
6.1.9.2 Therapy 260
References 261
7 Flaviviruses 274
7.1 Hepatitis C Virus 274
7.1.1 History 274
7.1.2 Epidemiology 274
7.1.3 Viral Genome Structure， Transcription， Translation， Gene Functions and Taxonomy 276
7.1.4 Infection， Transmission， and Viral DNA Persistence 277
7.1.5 Pathogenesis and Immune Interactions 278
7.1.5.1 Evasion of Host Defense Mechanisms 278
7.1.5.2 Host Immune Responses 280
7.1.6 Role in Hepatocellular Carcinoma 281
7.1.6.1 Experimental Evidence for a Role of HCV in Liver Cancer 281
7.1.7 Role in Lymphoproliferative Diseases 286
7.1.7.1 Mixed Cryoglobulinemia 286
7.1.7.2 Splenic Lymphoma with Villous Lymphocytes 286
7.1.7.3 Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma 287
7.1.8 Prevention and Control 288
7.1.8.1 Vaccines 288
7.1.8.2 Therapy 288
References 289
8 Retrovirus Family 304
8.1 Human T-Lymphotropic Retrovirus (HTLV-1) 306
8.1.1 Historical Background 306
8.1.2 Epidemiology and Transmission 306
8.1.3 Viral Gene Organization and Gene Products 307
8.1.3.1 The gag Protein 307
8.1.3.2 HTLV Protease 308
8.1.3.3 The Polymerase Protein 308
8.1.3.4 The env Protein 309
8.1.3.5 The Tax Protein 309
8.1.3.6 The Rex Protein 311
8.1.3.7 The p12(I) Protein 312
8.1.3.8 The p30(II) Protein 313
8.1.3.9 The p13(II) Protein 313
8.1.4 Diseases Caused by HTLV-1 Infection 314
8.1.5 Immune Response to HTLV-1 Infections 314
8.1.6 Animal Studies 316
8.1.7 Mechanism of Cell Transformation by HTLV-1 317
8.1.8 Prevention and Therapy 319
References 319
8.2 Human T-Lymphotropic Retrovirus-2 (HTLV-2) 337
References 339
8.3 Human Endogenous Retroviruses 341
8.3.1 The Discovery of HERVs 342
8.3.2 Genome Organization and Transcription 343
8.3.2.1 HERV-K 343
8.3.2.2 HERV-H 345
8.3.2.3 H ERV-W 346
8.3.2.4 Other Endogenous Human Retrovirus Genomes 347
8.3.3 HERV Proteins and the Immune Response 347
8.3.4 HERV: The Role in Human Tumors and Autoimmune Diseases 348
8.3.5 TheTrojan Exosome Hypothesis 351
References 351
8.4 Gibbon Ape Leukemia Virus and Simian Sarcoma Virus 361
References 364
9 Other Virus Infections Possibly Involved in Human Cancers 366
9.1 Polyomaviruses (JC， BK， and SV40) 366
9.1.1 BKVirus 368
9.1.1.1 Tumorigenicity of BK Virus in Experimental Animals 369
9.1.1.2 Immortalization of Human Cells by BK Virus， and BK Virus in Human Cancers
9.1.2 JC Virus 370
9.1.2.1 Tumorigenicity of JC Virus in Experimental Animals 370
9.1.2.2 Immortalization of Human Cells by JC Virus， and JC Virus in Human Cancers
9.1.3 SV40 373
9.1.3.1 Tumorigenicity of SV40 in Experimental Animals 373
9.1.3.2 Immortalization of Human Cells by SV40， and SV40 in Human Cancers 373
9.1.3.3 Does SV40 Represent a Human Carcinogen? 376
References 377
10 Helicobacter， Chronic Inflammation， and Cancer 386
10.1 Discovery， Taxonomy， and Genomics 386
10.1.1 Discovery 386
10.1.1.1 Gastric Helicobacters 386
10.1.1.2 Enterohepatic Helicobacters 389
10.1.2 Taxonomy 390
10.1.2.1 Gastric Helicobacters 390
10.1.2.2 Enterohepatic Helicobacter spp. 391
10.1.3 Genomic Analysis 392
10.1.3.1 H. pylori 392
10.1.3.2 H. hepaticus 395
10.2 Life Cycle， Specificity， and Virulence Determinants in Cancer Development
10.2.1 Epidemiology of H. pylori 396
10.2.1.1 Transmission of H. pylori 398
10.2.1.2 Age of Acquisition 400
10.2.2 Bacterial Factors Responsible for Cell Specificity and Virulence 409
10.2.3 Host Factors Playing a Role in Gastric Diseases 412
10.2.4 Environmental Factors 413
10.2.4.1 Diet 414
10.2.4.2 Co-Infection 414
10.2.4.3 Bacterial Overgrowth 415
10.2.5 Natural History and Stages of Infection 416
10.2.6 Chronic Inflammation and Cancer 417
10.2.6.1 Reactive Oxygen/Nitrogen Species 418
10.2.6.2 Epithelial Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis 419
10.2.6.3 Role of Specific Cytokines 419
10.2.6.4 Link to T Cells and Macrophages 421
10.2.6.5 Bone Marrow Stem Cell Recruitment 422
10.3 Prevention of H. pylori-Induced Cancer 424
10.3.1 Interrupting Transmission in Children 424
10.3.2 Treatment Strategies of H. pylori in Populations at Risk 424
10.4 Animal Models 426
10.4.1 Animal Models for Helicobacter-Induced Gastric Cancer 426
10.4.1.1 Gerbil 426
10.4.1.2 Mouse 428
10.4.1.3 Ferret 430
10.4.2 Animal Models of MALT Lymphoma 432
10.4.2.1 H. fells-Induced MALT Lymphoma 432
10.4.3 Animal Models for Enterohepatic Helicobacter-Induced Cancer 433
10.4.3.1 Helicobacter hepaticus-Induced Liver Cancer 433
10.4.3.2 Helicobacterbilis-Associated Hepatitis 435
10.4.3.3 Helicobacter hepaticus and Lower Bowel Cancer 435
10.5 irulence Determinants of Enterohepatic Helicobacter spp. 437
10.5.1 H. hepaticus is a Tumor Promoter in the Liver 437
10.5.2 H. hepaticus Increases ROS and Intestinal Tumors 438
10.5.3 H. hepaticus Pathogenicity Island 438
10.5.4 Cytolethal Distending Toxin (CDT) 439
10.6 Enterohepatic Hdicobacter spp.: Are they Co-Carcinogens? 440
References 442
11 Parasites and Human Cancers 468
11.1 Schistosoma Infections 468
11.1.1 Epidemiology 470
11.1.2 Experimental Studies in Animals 471
11.1.3 Schistosoma Eggs and Cancer 472
11.1.4 Interactions of Schistosoma with Other Infections， and Chemical Factors 473
11.1.5 Mechanism of Schistosoma-Induced Cancers 474
11.1.6 Control and Therapy 474
References 474
11.2 Infection with Liver Flukes (Opisthorchis viverrini， O. felineus， Clonorchis sinensis) 477
11.2.1 Epidemiology 478
11.2.2 Immune Response 480
11.2.3 Role of Liver Flukes in Human Cancer， and Studies in Animals 480
11.2.4 Mechanism of Carcinogenicity 481
11.2.5 Control and Therapy 481
References 482
12 Cancers with a Possible Infectious Etiology 485
12.1 Leukemias and Lymphomas 485
12.1.1 Epidemiological Data 486
12.1.2 The Target Cell Conditioning Model 492
References 495
12.2 Human Breast Cancer 500
12.3 Other Human Cancers Possibly Linked to Infectious Events 502
References 503
