 |
Biomedical sensors and instruments / Tatsuo Togawa, Toshiyo Tamura, P. A -- 2nd ed. -- Boca Raton : CRC Press, c2011. -- (61.2684 /T645 /2nd ed.) |
Contents
Table Of Contents
Preface xi
Authors xiii
Chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts 1(18)
1.1 Signals and Noise in the Measurement 1(4)
1.1.1 Measurement 1(1)
1.1.2 Signals and Noise 1(1)
1.1.3 Amplitude and Power 2(1)
1.1.4 Power Spectrum 2(1)
1.1.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio 3(1)
1.1.6 Different Types of Noise 4(1)
1.1.6.1 Thermal Noise 4(1)
1.1.6.2 I/f Noise 4(1)
1.1.6.3 Interference 4(1)
1.1.6.4 Artifact 5(1)
1.2 Characteristics of the Measurement System 5(5)
1.2.1 Sensor and Measurement System 5(1)
1.2.2 Static Characteristics 6(1)
1.2.2.1 Sensitivity， Resolution， and Reproducibility 6(1)
1.2.2.2 Measurement Range 7(1)
1.2.2.3 Linearity or Nonlinearity 7(1)
1.2.2.4 Hysteresis 7(1)
1.2.3 Dynamic Characteristics 8(1)
1.2.3.1 Linear and Nonlinear Systems 8(1)
1.2.3.2 Frequency Response 8(2)
1.2.3.3 Time Constant， Response Time， Rise Time， and Settling Time 10(1)
1.3 Determination of Absolute Quantity 10(3)
1.3.1 Standard and Calibration 11(1)
1.3.2 Accuracy and Error 11(1)
1.3.3 Types of Error 11(1)
1.3.3.1 Random Error 12(1)
1.3.3.2 Systematic Error 12(1)
1.3.3.3 Quantization Error 12(1)
1.3.3.4 Dynamic Error 13(1)
1.4 Units of Measurement Quantities 13(6)
1.4.1 The International System of Units 13(1)
1.4.1.1 Base Units and Derived Units 13(1)
1.4.1.2 Dimension of a Quantity 14(1)
1.4.1.3 Recommendations for the Use of SI Units and Symbols 15(2)
1.4.2 Non-SI Units 17(1)
References 17(2)
Chapter 2 Pressure Measurements 19(62)
2.1 Object Quantities 19(5)
2.1.1 Units of Pressure 19(1)
2.1.2 Requirements for Pressure Measurement 19(1)
2.1.2.1 Physiological Pressure Ranges and Measurement Sites 19(3)
2.1.2.2 Reference Point for Pressure Measurement 22(2)
2.2 Direct Pressure Measurement 24(30)
2.2.1 Catheters and the Diaphragm-Type Pressure Sensor 24(1)
2.2.1.1 Catheters for Pressure Measurements 24(1)
2.2.1.2 Diaphragm Displacement Sensor 24(5)
2.2.2 Dynamic Response of Catheter-Sensor Systems 29(1)
2.2.2.1 Evaluation of Dynamic Response of the Catheter-Sensor System 30(3)
2.2.2.2 Improvement of Dynamic Response 33(1)
2.2.3 Catheter-Tip Pressure Sensor 34(5)
2.2.4 Implantable Pressure Sensors 39(1)
2.2.4.1 Absolute Pressure Sensors for Implantable Devices 39(2)
2.2.4.2 Pressure Monitoring by Implantable Devices 41(4)
2.2.5 Pressure Measurements in Small Vessels 45(1)
2.2.5.1 Highly Rigid Pressure Sensor System 45(1)
2.2.5.2 Servo-Controlled Pressure-Measuring System 46(1)
2.2.6 Pressure Measurements in Collapsible Vessels and Interstitial Spaces 47(1)
2.2.6.1 Pressure Measurements in Collapsible Vessels 47(2)
2.2.6.2 Interstitial Pressure Measurements 49(4)
2.2.7 Differential Pressure Measurements 53(1)
2.3 Indirect Pressure Measurement 54(27)
2.3.1 Indirect Measurement of Systolic， Diastolic， and Mean Blood Pressure 54(1)
2.3.1.1 Cuff Design for Indirect Blood Pressure Measurements 55(2)
2.3.1.2 Detection of Korotkoff Sounds 57(2)
2.3.1.3 Mean Blood Pressure Measurements by the Oscillometric Method 59(2)
2.3.1.4 Blood Pressure Measurements by Doppler Ultrasound 61(2)
2.3.2 Indirect Measurements of Instantaneous Arterial Pressure 63(3)
2.3.3 Indirect Pressure Measurements by Reaction Forces 66(1)
2.3.3.1 Applanation Method 66(1)
2.3.3.2 Intraocular Pressure Measurements 67(4)
2.3.3.3 Intra-Amniotic and Intra-Abdominal Pressure Measurements 71(1)
2.3.3.4 Intracranial Pressure Measurement in Newborn Infants 72(1)
2.3.3.5 Arterial Tonometry 73(1)
References 74(7)
Chapter 3 Flow Measurement 81(110)
3.1 Object Quantities 81(4)
3.1.1 Units in Flow Measurements 81(1)
3.1.2 Requirements for Measurement Ranges 82(1)
3.1.2.1 Blood Flow in a Single Vessel 82(1)
3.1.2.2 Tissue Blood Flow 83(1)
3.1.2.3 Respiratory Gas Flow 84(1)
3.2 Blood Flow Measurements in Single Vessels 85(40)
3.2.1 Electromagnetic Flowmeter 85(1)
3.2.1.1 Principle 85(1)
3.2.1.2 Factors Affecting the Measurements 86(1)
3.2.2 Ultrasonic Blood Flowmeters 86(1)
3.2.2.1 Propagation of Ultrasound in the Tissue 86(2)
3.2.2.2 Transit Time and Phase Shift Ultrasound Flowmeters 88(5)
3.2.2.3 Ultrasonic Doppler Flowmeters 93(4)
3.2.2.4 Methods of Range Discrimination 97(4)
3.2.2.5 Perivascular and Intravascular Doppler Probes 101(1)
3.2.3 Indicator Dilution Method 102(1)
3.2.3.1 Principle 102(2)
3.2.3.2 Dye Dilution Method 104(2)
3.2.3.3 Thermodilution Method 106(3)
3.2.3.4 The Fick Method 109(1)
3.2.3.5 Other Dilution Methods 110(1)
3.2.4 Flow Velocity Measurements by Heat Dissipation 111(1)
3.2.4.1 Thermistor Velocity Probes 111(1)
3.2.4.2 Hot Film Velocity Probes 112(1)
3.2.5 Impedance Cardiography 113(3)
3.2.6 Blood Flow Recording in Single Vessels by Laser Doppler Flowmetry 116(1)
3.2.6.1 Introduction 116(1)
3.2.6.2 Airborne Beams 116(1)
3.2.6.3 Microscope-Based Instrument 116(1)
3.2.6.4 Catheter-Based Instruments 117(2)
3.2.7 Correlation Methods for Microvascular Red Blood Cell Velocity Measurement 119(3)
3.2.8 Miscellaneous Mechanical Flowmeters 122(2)
3.2.9 Implantable Flow Sensors 124(1)
3.3 Tissue Blood Flow Measurement 125(32)
3.3.1 Venous Occlusion Plethysmography 125(1)
3.3.1.1 Venous Occlusion Method 125(1)
3.3.1.2 Displacement Plethysmographies 126(3)
3.3.1.3 Impedance Plethysmographies 129(2)
3.3.2 Clearance Technique 131(1)
3.3.2.1 Principle 131(2)
3.3.2.2 Use of Radioactive Indicators 133(1)
3.3.2.3 Hydrogen Gas Clearance Method 134(3)
3.3.3 Tissue Blood Flow Measurements by Indicator Dilution Method 137(1)
3.3.4 Tissue Blood Flow Measurements by Heat Transport 138(1)
3.3.5 Tissue Blood Flow Measurement by Laser Doppler Flowmetry 138(1)
3.3.5.1 Introduction 138(1)
3.3.5.2 Interaction between Light and Tissue 139(4)
3.3.5.3 Instrument Design Principles 143(1)
3.3.5.4 Fiberoptic Arrangements 144(2)
3.3.5.5 Self-Mixing Laser Diode Technology 146(1)
3.3.5.6 Signal Processing Principles 146(1)
3.3.5.7 Calibration and Standardization of Laser Doppler Flowmeters 147(1)
3.3.5.8 Laser Doppler Perfusion Imaging 148(3)
3.3.6 Tissue Blood Flow Measurements by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 151(1)
3.3.6.1 Principle of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 151(4)
3.3.6.2 Magnetic Resonance Tissue Blood Flow Measurement Methods 155(2)
3.4 Respiratory Gas Flow Measurements 157(34)
3.4.1 Gas Flow Sensors 157(1)
3.4.1.1 Rotameter 157(2)
3.4.1.2 Pneumotachograph 159(2)
3.4.1.3 Hot-Wire Anemometer 161(4)
3.4.1.4 Time-of-Flight Flowmeter 165(2)
3.4.1.5 Ultrasonic Flowmeter 167(2)
3.4.1.6 Vortex Flowmeter 169(1)
3.4.1.7 Acoustical Respiratory Flow Measurements 170(1)
3.4.2 Volume Measuring Spirometers 171(1)
3.4.3 Lung Plethysmography 172(1)
3.4.3.1 Body Plethysmography 172(2)
3.4.3.2 Inductance Plethysmography 174(1)
3.4.3.3 Impedance Pneumography 175(2)
References 177(14)
Chapter 4 Motion and Force Measurement 191(44)
4.1 Objects of Measurement 191(2)
4.1.1 Units of Quantities 191(1)
4.1.2 Objects of Measurements 191(1)
4.1.3 Coordinate System 192(1)
4.2 Motion Measurements 193(23)
4.2.1 Displacement and Rotation Measurements by Contact Sensors 194(1)
4.2.1.1 Displacement and Rotation Measurements of the Body and an Extracted Tissue 194(6)
4.2.1.2 Displacement Measurements in Vivo 200(3)
4.2.2 Noncontact Measurement of Displacement and Rotation 203(1)
4.2.2.1 Optical Methods 203(3)
4.2.2.2 Magnetic Methods 206(1)
4.2.3 Linear and Angular Velocity Measurements 207(1)
4.2.3.1 Electromagnetic Velocity Sensors 208(1)
4.2.3.2 Doppler Methods 209(1)
4.2.3.3 Angular Velocity Sensors 210(1)
4.2.4 Translational and Angular Acceleration Measurements 211(1)
4.2.4.1 Translational Accelerometers 212(3)
4.2.4.2 Angular Accelerometers 215(1)
4.3 Force Measurements 216(19)
4.3.1 Muscle Contraction Measurements 216(1)
4.3.1.1 Design of the Elastic Beam for Muscle Contraction Measurements 216(1)
4.3.1.2 Force Measurements in Isolated Muscles 217(1)
4.3.1.3 In Vivo Measurements of Muscular Contraction 218(1)
4.3.2 Measurements of Stresses in the Bone 219(2)
4.3.3 Ground Force Measurements 221(1)
4.3.3.1 The Force Plates 221(1)
4.3.3.2 Stabilometers 222(2)
4.3.3.3 Instrumented Shoe 224(3)
4.3.3.4 Foot Force Distribution Measurements 227(1)
References 228(7)
Chapter 5 Temperature， Heat Flow， and Evaporation Measurements 235(46)
5.1 Object Quantities 235(3)
5.1.1 Units of Thermal Quantities 235(1)
5.1.2 Requirements for Measurement Ranges 236(2)
5.2 Temperature Sensors 238(10)
5.2.1 Thermistors 238(2)
5.2.2 Thermocouples 240(2)
5.2.3 Wire and Thin Film Thermoresistive Elements 242(1)
5.2.4 p-n Junction Diodes and Transistors 243(2)
5.2.5 Crystal Resonators 245(1)
5.2.6 Temperature Sensors for Use in Strong Electromagnetic Fields 246(2)
5.3 Noncontact Temperature Measurement Techniques 248(9)
5.3.1 Infrared Measurements 249(1)
5.3.1.1 Infrared Radiation Thermometers 249(1)
5.3.1.2 Infrared Detectors 250(3)
5.3.1.3 Infrared Thermography 253(1)
5.3.2 Noninvasive Thermal Imaging in Deep Tissue 254(1)
5.3.2.1 Magnetic Resonance Thermal Imaging 255(1)
5.3.2.2 Active and Passive Microwave Thermal Imaging 255(1)
5.3.2.3 Ultrasonic Thermal Imaging 256(1)
5.3.2.4 Thermal Imaging by Tissue Electrical Impedance 257(1)
5.4 Clinical Thermometers 257(6)
5.4.1 Indwelling Thermometer Probes 257(1)
5.4.1.1 Rectal Temperature Measurement 257(1)
5.4.1.2 Esophageal Temperature Measurement 258(1)
5.4.1.3 Bladder Temperature Measurement 258(1)
5.4.2 Tympanic Thermometers 258(1)
5.4.2.1 Contact Probes 258(1)
5.4.2.2 Noncontact Tympanic Thermometers 259(1)
5.4.3 Zero-Heat-Flow Thermometer 260(1)
5.4.4 Telemetering Capsules 261(1)
5.4.4.1 Radio Pill 261(2)
5.4.4.2 Ultrasonic-Coupling Crystal Resonator 263(1)
5.5 Heat Flow Measurements 263(5)
5.5.1 Heat Flow Sensors 263(2)
5.5.2 Heat Flow Measurement at the Body Surface 265(2)
5.5.3 Direct Calorimetry 267(1)
5.6 Evaporation Measurement 268(13)
5.6.1 Introduction 268(1)
5.6.2 Humidity Sensors 269(1)
5.6.2.1 The Electrolytic Water Vapor Analyzer 269(1)
5.6.2.2 Thermal Conductivity Cell 269(1)
5.6.2.3 Infrared Water Vapor Analyzer 270(1)
5.6.2.4 Dew-Point Hygrometer 270(1)
5.6.2.5 Electrohygrometer 270(1)
5.6.2.6 Capacitive Humidity Sensor 271(1)
5.6.2.7 Impedance Humidity Sensor 271(1)
5.6.2.8 Thermoelectric Psychrometer 271(1)
5.6.3 Measurement of Evaporative Water Loss from Skin and Mucosa 272(1)
5.6.3.1 Unventilated Chamber 272(1)
5.6.3.2 Ventilated Chamber 272(1)
5.6.3.3 Gradient Estimation Method 273(2)
References 275(6)
Chapter 6 Bioelectric and Biomagnetic Measurements 281(34)
6.1 Objects of Measurements 281(2)
6.1.1 Units of Electromagnetic Measurements 281(1)
6.1.1.1 Electrical Units 281(1)
6.1.1.2 Magnetic Units 282(1)
6.1.2 Requirements for Measurement Ranges 282(1)
6.1.2.1 Bioelectric Events 282(1)
6.1.2.2 Biomagnetic Events 283(1)
6.2 Electrode Theory 283(5)
6.2.1 Electrode-Electrolyte Interface 283(1)
6.2.2 Liquid Junction Potentials 284(1)
6.2.3 Double Layer 285(2)
6.2.4 Electrode Potential 287(1)
6.3 Surface Potential Electrodes 288(10)
6.3.1 ECG Electrodes 288(1)
6.3.1.1 Silver-Silver Chloride Electrode 289(1)
6.3.1.2 Stainless Steel Electrodes 290(1)
6.3.1.3 Electrode Impedance 290(4)
6.3.1.4 Motion Artifacts 294(1)
6.3.1.5 Dry Contactless or Capacitive Electrodes 294(1)
6.3.2 Electromyogram Electrodes 295(1)
6.3.2.1 Surface Electrodes 295(1)
6.3.2.2 Needle and Wire Electrodes 296(1)
6.3.3 Electroencephalogram Electrodes 296(2)
6.4 Micro and Suction Electrodes 298(3)
6.4.1 Glass Microelectrodes 298(1)
6.4.2 Metal Microelectrodes 299(1)
6.4.3 Suction Electrodes 300(1)
6.4.4 Patch Clamping 301(1)
6.5 Biomagnetism 301(14)
6.5.1 Biomagnetic Fields 301(1)
6.5.1.1 Magnetopneumography 302(1)
6.5.1.2 Magnetoencephalography 303(1)
6.5.2 Induction Coil Measurements 303(1)
6.5.3 Fluxgate Magnetometer 304(2)
6.5.4 Squid Systems 306(2)
6.5.5 Magnetic Noise and Shielding 308(3)
References 311(4)
Chapter 7 Chemical Measurement 315(84)
7.1 Objects of Measurements 315(2)
7.1.1 Units of Chemical Quantities 315(1)
7.1.2 Objects of Chemical Measurement 316(1)
7.1.3 Requirements and Limitations in Chemical Measurements 317(1)
7.2 Chemical Sensors 317(46)
7.2.1 Electrochemical Sensors 317(1)
7.2.1.1 Electrode Potential and Reference Electrode 318(3)
7.2.1.2 Potentiometric Sensors 321(4)
7.2.1.3 Amperometric Sensors 325(3)
7.2.1.4 Electrochemical Gas Sensors 328(5)
7.2.1.5 Impedimetric Sensors 333(1)
7.2.2 Optically Based Chemical Sensors 334(1)
7.2.2.1 Spectrophotometric Chemical Analysis 334(3)
7.2.2.2 Chemical Sensors Based on Surface Plasmon Resonance 337(2)
7.2.2.3 Fiber Optic Chemical Sensors 339(2)
7.2.3 Chemical Sensors of Acoustic and Thermal Principles 341(4)
7.2.4 Biosensors 345(1)
7.2.4.1 Enzyme-Based Biosensors 345(3)
7.2.4.2 Immunosensors 348(2)
7.2.4.3 DNA Sensors 350(2)
7.2.4.4 Microbial Sensors 352(1)
7.2.5 Other Analytical Methods and Instrumentations 353(1)
7.2.5.1 Mass Spectrometry 353(3)
7.2.5.2 Chromatography 356(1)
7.2.5.3 Electrophoresis 357(2)
7.2.5.4 Magnetic Resonance 359(2)
7.2.5.5 Other Analytical Methods Based on Physical Material Properties 361(2)
7.3 Continuous Measurements of Chemical Quantities 363(36)
7.3.1 Measurements by Indwelling Sensors 364(1)
7.3.1.1 Intravascular Measurements 364(3)
7.3.1.2 Tissue Measurements 367(1)
7.3.2 Ex Vivo Measurements 368(1)
7.3.2.1 Measurements by Blood Drainage 368(3)
7.3.2.2 Microdialysis 371(2)
7.3.3 Transcutaneous Measurements 373(1)
7.3.3.1 The Skin as a Membrane in Transcutaneous Measurements 373(2)
7.3.3.2 Transcutaneous Blood Gas Measurements 375(3)
7.3.3.3 Transcutaneous Arterial Oxygen Saturation Monitoring 378(5)
7.3.3.4 Transcutaneous Glucose Monitoring 383(1)
7.3.4 Respiratory Gas Analysis 384(1)
7.3.4.1 Monitoring Ventilation 385(1)
7.3.4.2 Estimation of Metabolic Rate 386(2)
7.3.5 Electronic Noses 388(1)
References 389(10)
Index 399
